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Soderzhanie
Introduction
Contrastive lexicology is a new type of studies aimed at establishing differences and similarities between languages in the course of their systematic description. It is concerned with the analysis of language vocabularies and lexical items in respect of their structural, semantic, and functional features. The focus of this investigation has been on cross-linguistic correspondences between languages at the lexical level. As part of contrastive linguistics, contrastive lexicology rests on the general principles of the universal device of comparison, on the one hand, and on the other – looks into the nature of lexical correlations, i.e. examines the `matches' and `mismatches' discoverable at the level of structured lexicons. To proceed with the definition of contrastive linguistics, it is necessary to point out that "the principle of contrast is considered fundamental to linguistic analysis" (Crystal, 1985: 73). It can be illustrated with reference to different levels of linguistic study (e.g., distinctive features in phonology and morpho-logy are commonly regarded as `contrastive units' in defining the notions of Phoneme and Morpheme). As a general approach to the investigation of language, contrastive analysis is used "in certain areas of Applied linguistics, such as foreign language teaching and translation" (Crystal, 1985: 74). In teaching and learning practice it is crucial to spot points of difference between the native and the foreign languages in order that potential problems and difficulties could be identified. The question of types of languages or language `families' that are being compared has also become most important in establishing the ontology (or variety) of contrastive studies. As is well-known, the fundamental principles of describing sets of languages that derive from a common `ancestor' had been devised by comparative philologists in the nineteenth century. Thus, the Indo-European `family' tree represents the relationships between cognate (related) languages such as German, Dutch, English, Flemish (West Germanic languages) or Polish, Russian, Czech (Balto-Slavic languages), etc. (see Figure 1). In the English metalanguage this type of studies became known as comparative philology. Its primary purpose especially in the early stages was to investigate the relationships between cognate (related) languages leading to the formation of language families (Sanskrit, Latin, Germanic, Romance languages, etc.). Contrastive analyses, conversely, are for the most part synchronic; they go beyond the genetic-etymological kinship of languages to embrace both related and unrelated languages (e.g., Russian and English). Their aim is to target cross-linguistic correspondences between the living languages along the lines of typology, i.e. their structure and functioning. At the same time analogous studies "of two states in the history of a language would be grouped under a different heading, such as Comparative or Historical Linguistics" (Crystal, 1985: 74). In the Russian tradition the terms `sravnitel'nij' and `sopostavitel'nij' are used to refer to different types of studies. Thus, according to V.M.Leichik, "sopostavitel'nomu analizu mogut podvergat'sya yavleniya lyubikh yazikov, togda kak sravnitel'nij metod primenyaetsya k rodstvennim yazikam, on voznik imenno kak sravnitel'no-istoricheskij metod uglublennogo izucheniya geneticheski svyazannikh yazikov i lish' vposledstvii bil rasprostranen na issledovanie otdel'nikh yazikov vplot' do viyavleniya tipologicheskikh priznakov i zakonomernostej (yazikovikh universalij)" (Lejchik, 2002: 28). It should be pointed out however that the term "kontrastivnij" has been recently introduced to refer to the type of analyses that identify points of difference between a native and a foreign language (FL) for purposes of improving learning practices and facilitating FL acquisition. In spite of highly divergent terminologies across Russian and English national metalanguages, it can be maintained that the required clarity and precision have been achieved in the use of the term `contrastive linguistics' in modern investigations. As distinct from comparative philology, contrastive studies involve a systematic description of differences and similarities in the functioning of a native and a foreign language in synchrony. Their purpose is to consider structural-semantic as well as functional-pragmatic peculiarities of the two languages to meet the requirements of translation and foreign language teaching. An essential part of contrastive studies is the analysis of cross-linguistic correspondences which provide for better understanding of structural divergences and functional variation. Within this approach contrastive lexicology deals with lexis in contrast as manifested in the development of the two unrelated languages, such as Russian and English. Comparison as a universal device has been used all along in the history of linguistics. Its roots can be traced back to the first attempts at compiling lists of equivalent words for purposes of translation. Bilingual glossaries were the first products of a systematic contrastive analysis of language vocabularies. Comparative-diachronic and typological-structural investigations are commonly regarded as the precursor of modern synchronic contrastive studies. The already established defining features that specify the device of comparison (or contrast) as used in linguistics can be listed as follows (Konetskaya, 1993: 6–7): As regards the first defining feature, it is interesting to observe that lexical-semantic divergences between British and American English may be reflected in translation, i.e. at the level of lexical correspondences in contrastive analysis. Thus, the Russian "ministerstvo inostrannikh del" is rendered into British English as `Foreign Office' which corresponds to `State Department' in American English. According to Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners these expressions are analogous in the two varieties: "Foreign Office is the British government department whish deals with Britain's relations with foreign countries" and "State Department in the US is the government department that manages the country's relations with other countries" (Kosareva, 2007: 9). Similarly "ministr inostrannikh del" will be correlated with `Foreign Secretary' in British English and `Secretary of State' in American English. These examples illustrate the importance of cultural and socio-linguistic evidence in the applied contrastive analysis meeting the requirements of translation and foreign language teaching. Speaking of a wide range of contrastive-comparative investigations, it can be claimed that their differentiation depends on the defining feature (or features from the above list) which becomes prevalent in each particular case. If the method of comparison is seen as the key point, the investigation is carried out along the lines of the historic-comparative approach (sravnitel'no-istoricheskoe yazikoznanie). Theory becomes the dominating factor in typology (strukturnaya tipologiya). At the same time `lingvisticheskaya komparativistika' puts together typological (related and unrelated languages) and historic-comparative (related languages) studies. In this light contrastive linguistics can be regarded as lining up with typology, but if the latter strives for structural-semantic universals, the contrastive approach attends to more concrete matters, such as cross-linguistic correspondences both at the levels of language system and functioning. Similar to typology, contrastive linguistics is concerned with unrelated languages (e.g. English and Russian) which present a special object of comparison. According to A.Viberg, "At a fundamental, cognitive level, there are certain similarities even between languages that are genetically and geographically widely separated" (Viberg, 2002: 119). Unlike typology, contrastive studies embrace the specific features of individual languages. In this respect they line up with what in Russian is described as `kharakterologiya': "to est' napravlenie, opisivayuschee suschestvennie priznaki opredelennogo yazika v sinkhronicheskom plane s uchetom ego funktsional'nikh osobennostej" (Lejchik, 2002: 27). It follows from the above discussion that in contrastive analysis the functional aspect of language units becomes most important. The investigation covers both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships in cross-linguistic comparison of languages bridging the Grammar of structures and the Grammar of speech (Gak, 1977: 10). This direction has recently received special attention from scholars: "optimal'nim yavlyaetsya sinkhronnij sopostavitel'nij metod, vklyuchayuschij analiz soderzhatel'nikh i formal'nikh priznakov slov i ikh sovokupnostej" (Lejchik, 2002: 28). Ot avtora. Kratkoe soderzhanie osnovnikh razdelov uchebnogo posobiya (otrivok)
"Vvedenie v kontrastivnuyu leksikologiyu" yavlyaetsya odnoj iz novikh lingvisticheskikh distsiplin, vkhodyaschikh v uchebnuyu programmu po spetsial'nostyam "Teoriya i praktika perevoda" i "Anglijskij yazik" kak prodolzhenie obschego kursa leksikologii izuchaemogo yazika. Kak i ryad drugikh kursov, svyazannikh s perevodom, kontrastivnaya leksikologiya ob'edinyaet v sebe obschie i chastnie aspekti issledovaniya. S odnoj storoni, ona osnovivaetsya na obschikh podkhodakh k analiticheskomu sravneniyu yazikov v plane prisuschikh im skhodstv i razlichij, a s drugoj – vklyuchaet poisk mezh'yazikovikh leksicheskikh sootvetstvij v konkretnikh yazikakh, yavlyayuschikhsya ob'ektom sopostavleniya. Vopros o tom, kakie yaziki – rodstvennie ili nerodstvennie – izbirayutsya v kachestve materiala issledovaniya, okazivaetsya osobenno vazhnim, poskol'ku imenno on opredelyaet kharakter i tseli provodimogo analiticheskogo sravneniya, prezhde vsego v plane togo, yavlyaetsya li ono sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'nim ili kontrastivnim. Esli sravnitel'noe yazikoznanie imeet v kachestve svoego ob'ekta rodstvennie yaziki i istoricheskie svyazi mezhdu nimi, to kontrastivnij analiz vikhodit za ramki geneticheskoj obschnosti yazikov i stavit vo glavu ugla poisk mezh'yazikovikh sootvetstvij v zhivikh yazikakh (rodstvennikh i nerodstvennikh) s tsel'yu viyavleniya obschikh tipologicheskikh priznakov ikh stroeniya i funktsionirovaniya. Sravnitel'nij metod izvesten v filologii prezhde vsego kak osnova izucheniya istoricheskikh etapov v razvitii yazikov i dialektov v diakhronii, nachatogo esche v XIX veke. Viyavlenie morfo-strukturnikh svyazej geneticheski rodstvennikh yazikov i rekonstruktsiya prayazika traditsionno sostavlyali osnovnie napravleniya sravnitel'no-sopostavitel'noj grammatiki. Kontrastivnij analiz, naprotiv, obraschen k sinkhronnomu sopostavleniyu yazikov / dialektov v plane prisuschikh im strukturno-semanticheskikh skhodstv i razlichij. Analogichnie issledovaniya istoricheskikh etapov v razvitii yazikov rassmatrivayutsya kak otnosyaschiesya k sravnitel'noj ili istoricheskoj lingvistike (Crystal, 1985: 74). Sravnenie yavlyaetsya universal'nim priemom v teorii i praktike yazika. Ne sluchajno pervie popitki perevoda i sostavleniya spiskov ravnoznachnikh slov schitayutsya nachalom sistematizatsii i sravnitel'nogo izucheniya leksiki (Konetskaya, 1993: 6). V kachestve opredelyayuschikh priznakov sravnitel'nogo issledovaniya yazikov videlyayutsya sleduyuschie (Konetskaya, 1993: 6–7): 1) kharakter ob'ekta sravneniya (rodstvennie, nerodstvennie, blizkorodstvennie yaziki, natsional'nie varianti, dialekti, professional'nie yaziki i t.p.); 2) tsel' sravneniya (analiz stepeni rodstva yazikov, poisk universalij, ustanovlenie ekvivalentnosti i mezh'yazikovikh sootvetstvij); 3) napravlenie sravneniya (sinkhroniya vs. diakhroniya); 4) teoriya kak sistema nauchno obosnovannikh kharakteristik ob'ekta sravneniya; 5) metod kak sistema priemov sravnitel'nogo analiza. Mnogoobrazie napravlenij v sravnitel'nikh issledovaniyakh yazikov ob'yasnyaetsya tem, chto razlichnie obschie priznaki i faktori (iz visheperechislennikh) stanovyatsya dominiruyuschimi v tom ili inom konkretnom sluchae. Esli metod sravneniya izbiraetsya v kachestve osnovi analiza, issledovanie provoditsya v rusle sravnitel'no-istoricheskogo yazikoznaniya. Faktor teorii yavilsya opredelyayuschim v stanovlenii strukturnoj tipologii. Otdel'no videlyaetsya lingvisticheskaya komparativistika, ob'edinyayuschaya tipologiyu (sravnenie nerodstvennikh yazikov) i sravnitel'no-istoricheskoe yazikoznanie, ob'ektom izucheniya kotorogo yavlyayutsya rodstvennie yaziki (Konetskaya, 1993: 8). V svete visheskazannogo nastoyaschij kurs predstavlyaet soboj kontrastivnoe (sinkhronicheskoe) opisanie skhodstv i razlichij v sopostavlenii leksicheskikh sistem nerodstvennikh yazikov: anglijskogo i russkogo. V vibore ob'ekta issledovaniya on, takim obrazom, sblizhaetsya s lingvisticheskoj tipologiej, glavnoj zadachej kotoroj yavlyaetsya poisk strukturno-semanticheskikh universalij. Kontrastivnaya lingvistika iskhodit iz obschnosti i razlichiya yazikov. Soglasno A.Vajbergu, "na osnovopolagayuschem kognitivnom urovne skhodstvo mozhet bit' obnaruzheno mezhdu geneticheski nerodstvennimi i dostatochno udalennimi drug ot druga geograficheski yazikami" (Viberg, 2002: 119). Odnako v kontrastivnom sopostavlenii leksiki otdel'nikh yazikov stavyatsya i bolee chastnie zadachi, vitekayuschie iz nuzhd praktiki perevoda i prepodavaniya etikh yazikov. Neobkhodimim togda stanovitsya viyavlenie faktov sovpadeniya i razlichiya ne tol'ko na urovne leksiko-grammaticheskikh sistem sopostavlyaemikh yazikov, no i v sfere ikh real'nogo funktsionirovaniya. Kontrastivnij analiz, takim obrazom, presleduet tsel' opisaniya strukturno-semanticheskikh i funktsional'nikh osobennostej leksiki konkretnikh yazikov, kotorie mogut sluzhit' istochnikom potentsial'nikh trudnostej pri ikh izuchenii, a takzhe pri perevode s odnogo yazika na drugoj. Kharakterologii, opredelyayuschej osobie (spetsificheskie) priznaki odnogo yazika v sopostavlenii s drugim (ili drugimi), bili posvyascheni mnogie raboti otechestvennikh i zarubezhnikh uchenikh. V ramkakh stilistiki suschestvennie cherti frantsuzskogo yazika bili rassmotreni v sravnenii s nemetskim Sh.Balli (Balli, 1955, 1961). R.A.Budagov predlozhil tipologiyu mezh'yazikovikh leksicheskikh sootvetstvij na materiale romanskikh yazikov (Budagov, 1963). Leksicheskaya tipologiya s oporoj na russkij yazik razrabativalas' ryadom uchenikh s privlecheniem konkretnikh yazikov: frantsuzskogo i russkogo V.G.Gakom (Gak, 1977), anglijskogo i russkogo V.D.Arakinim (Arakin, 1989) i A.V.Shirokovoj (Shirokova, 2000), nemetskogo i russkogo A.L.Zelenetskim i P.F.Monakhovim (Zelenetskij, Monakhov, 1983), russkogo i pol'skogo V.M.Lejchikom (Lejchik, 2002). Teoreticheskoe osveschenie printsipov sopostavleniya rodstvennikh (germanskikh) yazikov ischerpivayusche predstavleno v rabote V.P.Konetskoj (Konetskaya, 1993). Sopostavleniyu smislovogo ob'ema i semanticheskoj strukturi slov v otdel'nikh yazikakh posvyascheni issledovaniya V.S.Vinogradova, V.L.Silina, G.G.Ivlevoj, A.E.Supruna, A.D.Shvejtsera, E.S.Kubryakovoj, V.N.Yartsevoj i dr. V kontrastivnom napravlenii, vitekayuschem iz prakticheskoj neobkhodimosti sravneniya inostrannogo i rodnogo yazikov, kak otmechayut issledovateli, naibolee posledovatel'no realizovan strukturnij podkhod (Yartseva, 1981). Soglasno ryadu uchenikh (M.Novakovski, U.Vajnrajkh, V.P.Konetskaya, V.N.Yartseva i dr.), naimenee izuchennim v sravnitel'nom plane ostaetsya funktsional'nij aspekt. Do sikh por osnovnoe vnimanie udelyalos' morfonologicheskomu, morfologicheskomu i slovoobrazovatel'nomu aspektam v kharakterologii leksiki otdel'nikh yazikov, kak naibolee poddayuschimsya obobscheniyu i sistematizatsii. Zadachej zhe kontrastivnikh issledovanij v znachitel'noj mere
yavlyaetsya funktsional'nij aspekt leksiki, kak pravilo, dvukh
sopostavlyaemikh yazikov. Edinitsi slovarnogo sostava yazika
stanovyatsya predmetom ne tol'ko paradigmaticheskogo, no i sintagmaticheskogo analiza, pozvolyayuschego ustanovit'
razlichiya v znachenii i upotreblenii slov v grammatike yazika
i "grammatike rechi" (Gak, 1977: 10). Eto napravlenie
poluchilo razvitie na sovremennom etape razrabotki
sopostavitel'nikh issledovanij. Vazhno otmetit', chto kontrastivnoe
izuchenie yazikov "opiraetsya na dostizheniya psikholingvistiki,
sotsiolingvistiki, etnolingvistiki, teorii yazikovikh kontaktov
i dr." (Lejchik, 2002: 28). Ono orientirovano "na viyavlenie
razlichij rodnogo i inostrannogo yazikov dlya tselej naibolee
polnogo osvoeniya poslednego" (Ibid: 28).
Novimi aspektami kursa yavlyayutsya:
V razdele pervom uchebnogo posobiya "Predmet i zadachi kontrastivnoj leksikologii" videlyayutsya osnovnie etapi v provedenii sopostavitel'nogo analiza na urovne leksiki (1.1). Kontrastivnie issledovaniya yazikov v sinkhronii, kak pravilo, rassmatrivayutsya kak predshestvuyuschij etap obobschenij tipologicheskogo kharaktera. Oni sluzhat tselyam viyavleniya mezh'yazikovikh sootvetstvij v praktike prepodavaniya i pri perevode i poetomu neredko poluchayut nazvanie prikladnikh kontrastivnikh issledovanij. O neobkhodimosti vichleneniya tipovikh kontekstov i situatsij v leksicheskom sopostavlenii govoryat mnogie fakti v prepodavanii inostrannikh yazikov. Soglasno V.G.Gaku, "sravnivaya perevodi s podlinnikom, mi splosh' i ryadom obnaruzhivaem takie leksicheskie zameni, kotorie ne predusmatrivayutsya nikakimi slovaryami i nikak ne mogut bit' ob'yasneni s ikh pomosch'yu" (Gak, 1977: 5). Opredelennie zakonomernosti izuchaemogo yazika mogut bit' raskriti lish' v sopostavlenii s rodnim. "Novie" kontrastivnie issledovaniya, v osnove kotorikh lezhit sravnenie yazikov, nezavisimo ot ikh istorii, stalo "tem aspektom, kotorogo nedostavalo leksikologicheskim issledovaniyam proshlogo" (Gak, 1977: 6). V 60–70-e godi XX veka poyavlyaetsya vse bol'she rabot, rassmatrivayuschikh zakonomernosti upotrebleniya slov odinakovogo znacheniya (Budagov, 1963; Skalichka, 1963; i drugie). Rech' idet "ne stol'ko o sravnenii leksicheskikh sistem dvukh yazikov, skol'ko o sravnenii funktsionirovaniya etikh sistem, o sootnoshenii mezhdu leksicheskimi elementami i opisivaemoj real'nost'yu" (Gak, 1977: 7). Kontrastivnie issledovaniya na baze anglijskogo yazika proshli neskol'ko etapov razvitiya. Vozniknuv v kontse 40-kh godov XX veka, oni rassmatrivalis' kak prikladnaya oblast' lingvistiki, obsluzhivayuschaya lish' prepodavanie inostrannikh yazikov. Poskol'ku v anglo-amerikanskikh rabotakh togo vremeni gospodstvoval strukturalizm, kontrastivnij analiz bil napravlen preimuschestvenno na fonologiyu i grammatiku. Leksike otvodilas' lish' vtorostepennaya rol'. Zatem v 60-kh godakh kontrastivnij analiz okazalsya na periferii lingvisticheskikh issledovanij, osobenno v SShA, gde on bil ob'yavlen maloperspektivnim napravleniem (Altenberg, Granger, 2002). Odnako v Evrope rabota prodolzhalas', i ryad interesnikh proektov bil nachat v 70-e godi. Kontrastivnie issledovaniya stali rassmatrivat'sya kak poleznie ne tol'ko v metodike prepodavaniya, no i v teorii perevoda, kharakterologii yazikov, lingvisticheskoj tipologii i izuchenii yazikovikh universalij. V nastoyaschee vremya kontrastivnoj lingvistike pridaetsya ogromnoe znachenie. Eto svyazano 1) s vozrastayuschej rol'yu mezh'yazikovoj kommunikatsii vo vsekh ee proyavleniyakh (internatsionalizatsiya evropejskikh standartov obrazovaniya, povishenie effektivnosti prepodavaniya inostrannikh yazikov, rastuschie trebovaniya k perevodu v razlichnikh oblastyakh deyatel'nosti); 2) s otkhodom ot strukturalizma i rannej generativnoj grammatiki i peremescheniem interesa lingvistov na sferu recheupotrebleniya i empiricheskikh dannikh v yazikovedcheskom issledovanii; 3) s vozniknoveniem korpusnoj lingvistiki, vpervie otkrivayuschej pered issledovatelyami vozmozhnosti sploshnogo analiza materiala, viyavleniya kolichestvennikh zakonomernostej upotrebleniya slov i eksperimenta. Kontrastivnaya leksikologiya izuchaet slozhnuyu vzaimosvyaz' skhodstv i razlichij mezhdu yazikami na leksicheskom urovne. Ona okhvativaet tselij ryad podkhodov, takikh kak leksicheskie universalii, teoriya yazikovoj otnositel'nosti, leksicheskaya tipologiya i kontrastivnij leksicheskij analiz. Mezh'yazikovie issledovaniya leksikona tesno svyazani s prikladnimi oblastyami – prepodavaniem inostrannikh yazikov i razlichnimi vidami perevoda. Govorya o leksike v sopostavitel'nikh issledovaniyakh (1.2), sleduet imet' v vidu, chto izuchenie kazhdogo otdel'nogo yazika predpolagaet rassmotrenie vsego mnogoobraziya faktov upotrebleniya slov i ikh ekvivalentov. Funktsionirovanie slov svyazano s individual'nim viborom sredstv virazheniya govoryaschim. V etom smisle slova simvoliziruyut svobodu nositelej yazika, ikh vozmozhnosti samovirazheniya, chto razitel'no otlichaet leksiku ot grammatiki, yavlyayuschejsya neprelozhnoj neobkhodimost'yu i trebuyuschej podchineniya "zakonu". Imenno poetomu leksika rassmatrivalas' dolgoe vremya kak besporyadochnaya stikhiya, kuda, kak v tyur'mu, popadayut vse "narushivshie zakon" yazikovie yavleniya ("a prison which contains only the lawless, and where the only thing the inmates have in common is their lawlessness" (Di Sciullo, Williams, 1987: 3)). V nastoyaschee vremya prioriteti rezko izmenilis', i leksikologiya podnyalas' na odno iz pervikh mest v teorii i praktike yazika. Prichinoj vozrastaniya roli leksikologii yavilos' suschestvennoe rasshirenie oblasti ee issledovaniya, sfer ee proniknoveniya i primeneniya. Vospol'zovavshis' dannimi sotsiolingvistiki i lingvostranovedeniya, etnografii i psikholingvistiki, leksikologiya gluboko vnedrilas' v tekstologiyu i rechevedenie. V izuchenii razlichnikh aspektov yazika nametilis' leksikologicheski orientirovannie podkhodi, chto proyavilos', v chastnosti, v razvitii deskriptivno-empiricheskikh issledovanij, izvestnikh kak "britanskij kontekstualizm" (Altenberg, Granger, 2002: 3). Mnogie sintaksicheskie yavleniya stali rassmatrivat'sya kak proektsiya obschikh zakonomernostej funktsionirovaniya leksikona. V angloyazichnikh issledovaniyakh leksika bila vpervie videlena kak otdel'nij lingvisticheskij uroven' M.A.K.Khallideem v 60-kh godakh s oporoj na raboti ego predshestvennika i uchitelya Dzh.Fersa. Osnovnim argumentom v pol'zu otdel'noj lingvisticheskoj distsiplini – leksikologii – posluzhil fakt suschestvovaniya slovosochetanij, otrazhayuschikh veroyatnost' sovmestnoj vstrechaemosti slov ("the habitual or customary places of words" (Firth, 1957: 12)). Vidvizheniyu leksikologii na perednie pozitsii, po mneniyu ryada uchenikh, sposobstvovali tri osnovnikh faktora (Altenberg, Granger, 2002: 4): Leksikologiya segodnya predstavlyaet soboj menee avtonomnuyu oblast' issledovaniya, otkrituyu dlya mnogochislennikh svyazej s drugimi urovnyami yazika, prezhde vsego s grammatikoj. Predmetom leksikologii yavlyayutsya kak otdel'nie slova, tak i slovosochetaniya, obrazuyuschie slozhnuyu vzaimosvyaz' paradigmaticheskikh i sintagmaticheskikh otnoshenij. Edinstvo leksiki i grammatiki figuriruet kak osnovnoj printsip v postroenii sovremennikh grammatik anglijskogo yazika, osveschayuschikh grammaticheskie svyazi slov vo vzaimodejstvii s leksicheskim napolneniem grammaticheskikh struktur (naprimer, The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, 1999). Govorya o real'nikh parallelyakh, kotorie ustanavlivayutsya mezhdu slovami v rechevikh aktakh, V.G.Gak otmechal, chto "eti sootnosheniya mozhno viyavit' lish' s pomosch'yu lingvisticheskogo eksperimenta... libo sravnivaya perevodi" (Gak, 1977: 10–11). Pravila otbora yazikovikh edinits pri postroenii viskazivaniya "otnosyatsya k sfere rechi, a ne yazika, poskol'ku oni kasayutsya ispol'zovaniya elementov yazika, a ne ikh stroeniya. Pravila rechi formuliruyutsya kak tendentsiya, oni kharakterizuyut elementi yazika prezhde vsego, s kolichestvennoj storoni, so storoni ikh upotreblyaemosti" (Gak, 1977: 10). Issledovaniyu imenno etoj storoni yazikovikh edinits sluzhit korpusnaya lingvistika, imeyuschaya v kachestve svoego predmeta opisanie bol'shikh massivov yazikovikh dannikh, predstavlennikh v elektronnom vide. Soglasno ryadu uchenikh (M.A.K.Khallidej, E.Tonini-Bonelli), korpusnaya lingvistika yavlyaetsya ne tol'ko metodom lingvisticheskogo issledovaniya, no i teoriej, poskol'ku obobscheniya v etoj oblasti neredko privodyat k kachestvennim izmeneniyam v traktovke yazikovikh yavlenij (1.3). Korpusnie issledovaniya kharakterizuyutsya empiricheskim podkhodom k opisaniyu sferi upotrebleniya yazika, ispol'zuya pri etom novie tekhnologii v razrabotke mezhdunarodnikh baz yazikovikh dannikh. V teoreticheskom plane oni osnovivayutsya na funktsional'noj i kontekstual'noj kontseptsii znacheniya yazikovikh edinits (Tognini-Bonelly, 2001: 2). Kontrastivnij analiz leksiki na osnove komp'yuternogo korpusa presleduet sleduyuschie tseli (Altenberg, Granger, 2002: 13–14): V nastoyaschem kurse lektsij ispol'zuyutsya dannie, poluchennie v khode issledovaniya Natsional'nogo korpusa russkogo yazika, Britanskogo natsional'nogo korpusa, Mezhdunarodnogo korpusa anglijskogo yazika (Velikobritaniya), Mezhdunarodnogo korpusa "Anglijskij yazik kak inostrannij", Russkogo korpusa yazika sredstv massovoj informatsii i Perevodnogo anglo-russkogo korpusa yazikovikh dannikh. Razdel vtoroj "Mezh'yazikovaya ekvivalentnost' na leksicheskom urovne: metodologiya i sovremennie podkhodi" posvyaschen rassmotreniyu faktorov i parametrov, sostavlyayuschikh osnovu sopostavleniya leksicheskikh edinits i poiska mezh'yazikovikh sootvetstvij. Kak khorosho izvestno, kontrastivnij analiz predpolagaet iznachal'nuyu sopostavimost' rassmatrivaemikh yavlenij, t.e. vozmozhnost' ikh sravneniya v plane opredelennikh obschikh svojstv. Eti obschie svojstva i yavlyayutsya "merilom" ekvivalentnosti ili tertium comparationis. V sluchae kontrastivnogo leksicheskogo analiza neobkhodimo, chtobi sravnivaemie yazikovie edinitsi obladali obschnost'yu znacheniya i pragmaticheskoj funktsii. Odnako chto imenno podrazumevaetsya pod ponyatiem "obschnost' znacheniya", ostaetsya ne do kontsa viyasnennim. V chastnosti, voznikaet vopros ob ob'ekte kontrastivnogo analiza: govorim li mi o slove v slovare ili o slove v rechevoj dejstvitel'nosti? Kak dolzhen osuschestvlyat'sya poisk perevodnikh ekvivalentov: v sisteme yazika ili v sfere ego funktsionirovaniya? Pochemu net sploshnogo sootvetstviya mezhdu sistemnimi (slovarnimi) ekvivalentami slov i rechevimi variantami ikh perevoda? Eti i drugie voprosi obuslovili diskussionnij kharakter tertium comparationis v sovremennoj lingvistike (Krzeszowski, 1990). Analogichnim obrazom, v teorii perevoda voznikaet vopros ob obosnovanii takikh ponyatij, kak translation equivalence (ekvivalentnost' pri perevode) i translation competence (kompetentnost' pri perevode). Ryad uchenikh (Chesterman, 1998; James, 1980) viskazivayut v etoj svyazi misl' o tom, chto ekvivalentnost' pri perevode yavlyaetsya otnositel'nim ponyatiem. Mezh'yazikovie leksicheskie sootvetstviya opirayutsya na perevodnie ekvivalenti, no perevod redko predstavlyaet soboj bukval'noe vosproizvedenie originala. Chasche on imeet tendentsiyu otklonyat'sya ot yazika-istochnika, chto virazhaetsya v dobavleniyakh i opuscheniyakh, rasshirenii i suzhenii teksta, vizivaemikh yazikovimi, sotsiokul'turnimi i kommunikativnimi soobrazheniyami. Kakie perevodi v dejstvitel'nosti mogut schitat'sya sootvetstvuyuschimi kriteriyu mezh'yazikovoj ekvivalentnosti? V leksicheskom kontrastivnom analize ekvivalentnost' mozhet bit' podtverzhdena kolichestvennim metodom obnaruzheniya naibolee chastotnikh perevodov togo ili drugogo slova, chto svidetel'stvuet o pravil'nosti ustanovlennogo sootvetstviya. V etoj svyazi osobenno vazhnim predstavlyaetsya parametr "vzaimnoj perevodimosti" leksicheskikh edinits (mutual translatability), viyavlyaemoj v issledovanii dvuyazichnogo (bilingual) yazikovogo korpusa. Vzaimozamenyaemost' slov v sopostavlyaemikh yazikakh mozhet sluzhit' osnovaniem dlya ustanovleniya ekvivalentnosti. Odnako nevnimanie k "neozhidannim" perevodam privodit k tomu, chto tonkie nyuansi znacheniya leksicheskikh edinits ostayutsya neokhvachennimi. Funktsional'no-semanticheskie parametri sravneniya v sinkhronicheskom issledovanii ostayutsya odnoj iz naimenee razrabotannikh oblastej kontrastivnoj leksikologii. Dlya primera mozhno obratit'sya k sopostavleniyu original'nogo teksta i ego perevoda, chto neredko viyavlyaet neozhidannie leksicheskie zameni, ne predusmotrennie slovarnimi sootvetstviyami. Poetomu, govorya o tertium comparationis, vazhno razlichat' inventarnie (sistemnie) i kontekstual'nie (funktsional'nie) sootvetstviya. Etim obuslovlena dvojstvennaya priroda tertium comparationis na leksicheskom urovne. Esli sistemnie razlichiya (system-related distinctions) kasayutsya strukturi znachenij slov v sostave leksikona dannogo yazika, to kontekstual'nie razlichiya (context-related distinctions) svyazani s distributsiej leksicheskikh edinits v otrezke teksta, a takzhe so stilisticheskimi i pragmaticheskimi usloviyami ikh funktsionirovaniya. Sootvetstvenno ponyatiya "ekvivalentnost' pri perevode" i "pragmaticheskaya tselesoobraznost' (adekvatnost')" okazivayutsya khotya i ne vzaimoisklyuchayuschimi, no neizbezhno trebuyuschimi vibora mezhdu fakticheskoj dostovernost'yu i pragmastilisticheskoj napravlennost'yu perevoda na opredelennogo chitatelya. Razrabotka funktsional'nogo podkhoda v sopostavitel'nom izuchenii leksicheskikh edinits okhvativaet ne tol'ko sistemnie svyazi slov, no i izuchenie kombinatornikh sposobnostej yazikovikh edinits v rechevikh aktakh, razlichnoj stepeni ustojchivosti i idiomatichnosti slovosochetanij. V sootvetstvii s etim v oblast' tertium comparationis vvodyatsya funktsional'nie razlichiya yazikovikh sredstv, sootnosimie s zhanrom, sposobom peredachi i stilisticheskoj napravlennost'yu soobscheniya. V to vremya kak sistemnie kharakteristiki v sostave tertium comparationis (2.1) vklyuchayut vzaimnuyu perevodimost' slov, ikh vnutrennyuyu formu, strukturu znacheniya, a takzhe leksiko-frazeologicheskuyu sochetaemost', funktsional'nie razlichiya (2.2) opirayutsya na parametri, orientirovannie na dannuyu situatsiyu obscheniya, fonovie znaniya, stil' povestvovaniya, literaturnie i fol'klornie traditsii. Integral'noe ponyatie tertium comparationis, takim obrazom, rasshiryaetsya pri perekhode k bolee slozhnim v stilisticheskom otnoshenii proizvedeniyam rechi, trebuyuschim analiza ne tol'ko osnovnikh, no i assotsiativnikh znachenij slov, priobretayuschikh neodnoznachnost' v kontekste. Zadachi filologicheskogo perevoda "ukrupnyayut" tertium comparationis za schet vklyucheniya v issledovanie novikh aspektov i rakursov sravneniya. V etoj svyazi neobkhodimo uchitivat', chto tsentral'noe mesto v kontrastivnom analize zanimaet yazikovoj vibor, t.e. resheniya, prinimaemie govoryaschimi v protsesse porozhdeniya rechi. Problema yazikovogo vibora neizbezhno stavit nas pered voprosom o tom, chto v yazike mozhno schitat' normal'nim, obscheprinyatim i chto vozmozhnim? Govorya o yazike kak takovom, mozhno predpolozhit', chto nekotorie resheniya, svyazannie s yazikovim viborom, opredelyayutsya strukturoj yazika, v to vremya kak drugie – yavlyayutsya individual'nimi, edinichnimi. V yazike naryadu s grammatikoj struktur prisutstvuet i grammatika rechi, otrazhayuschaya ustanovivshuyusya praktiku ispol'zovaniya slov (Gak, 1977: 10). Poslednyaya mozhet bit' takzhe opisana kak idiomatika yazika ili idiomaticheskij printsip (the idiom principle) (Sinclair, 1991). Za etimi ponyatiyami stoyat spetsifichnie i unikal'nie cherti yazikovogo upotrebleniya, kotorie vivodyatsya iz privichek, traditsij, navikov, norm i standartov, prinyatikh govoryaschimi v postroenii rechi. Dannie cherti, neizmenno prisutstvuyuschie v leksicheskom sopostavlenii, raskrivayutsya empiricheskim ili eksperimental'nim putem pri analize diskursa. Semanticheskie i funktsional'nie osobennosti slov nakhodyat otrazhenie v chastotnosti ikh upotrebleniya. Soglasno materialam korpusnikh issledovanij, chastotnost' okazivaetsya relevantnim pokazatelem kak pri analize ispol'zovaniya yazikovikh edinits v tselom, tak i pri rassmotrenii realizatsii otdel'nikh znachenij slov. V slovaryakh novogo pokoleniya (kak, naprimer, The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003), sostavlennikh na osnove korpusnikh dannikh, privodyatsya sravnitel'nie tablitsi, otrazhayuschie raznitsu v upotreblenii slov i virazhenij v razlichnikh stilyakh i registrakh rechi. Tekstologicheskaya praktika i real'nost' perevoda svidetel'stvuyut o neabsolyutnom kharaktere leksicheskikh sootvetstvij (2.3). Neredko granitsi semantiki leksicheskikh edinits okazivayutsya nechetkimi, a kontekstual'nie zameni ne podtverzhdayutsya dannimi dvuyazichnikh slovarej, narushaya tem samim printsip vzaimnoj perevodimosti slov. V svyazi s etim neobkhodimo razgranichivat' ponyatiya sistemnikh leksicheskikh sootvetstvij, privodimikh v dvuyazichnikh slovaryakh, i kontekstual'nikh sootvetstvij, ustanavlivaemikh v tekstologicheskom sopostavlenii i v protsesse perevoda. Krome togo, osobo mogut bit' videleni funktsional'nie sootvetstviya, viyavlyaemie na osnove chastotnosti upotrebleniya parallel'nikh leksicheskikh edinits v dvukh i bolee yazikakh. V tekh sluchayakh, kogda perevodnoj ekvivalent slova v drugom yazike ne sovpadaet s nim po svoemu funktsional'nomu statusu (chastotnosti upotrebleniya), v kachestve zameni mozhet bit' ispol'zovan sinonim, imeyuschij tu zhe funktsional'nuyu velichinu (znachimost'), chto i pervonachal'noe slovo. Podobnie razlichiya v ob'eme vstrechaemosti (upotrebitel'nosti) sopostavlyaemikh slov mogut privesti k asimmetrichnim zamenam pri perevode. Osoboe znachenie v razgranichenii sistemnikh i kontekstual'nikh sootvetstvij priobretayut takie yavleniya, kak polisemiya i shirokoznachnost'. Mnogoznachnie slova v kontrastivnom analize neredko obnaruzhivayut "raskhodyaschuyusya polisemiyu" (diverging polysemy), kogda semanticheskie ob'emi sopostavlyaemikh slov ne sovpadayut. Odnako v bol'shinstve podobnikh sluchaev poisk ekvivalentov ne vizivaet trudnostej, poskol'ku on opiraetsya na sistemnie sootvetstviya, privedennie v dvuyazichnikh slovaryakh. Bol'shuyu slozhnost' predstavlyayut slova, znachenie kotorikh pereosmislyaetsya i rasshiryaetsya v rezul'tate ikh upotrebleniya v tom ili drugom kontekste. Voznikshie smislovie ottenki inogda okazivayutsya neopredelennimi i vikhodyat za ramki chetko strukturirovannikh sistemnikh znachenij. Esli sistemnie leksicheskie sootvetstviya osnovivayutsya na denotativnoj (kontseptual'noj, ekstralingvisticheskoj) i otchasti konnotativnoj (emotsional'no-ekspressivno-otsenochnoj) ekvivalentnosti leksicheskikh edinits, to kontekstual'nie sootvetstviya pri perevode vklyuchayut gorazdo bolee shirokij spektr nyuansov recheupotrebleniya – pragmaticheskuyu napravlennost' viskazivaniya, a takzhe morfosintaksicheskie i leksiko-frazeologicheskie transformatsii, obespechivayuschie funktsional'nuyu adekvatnost' i sootvetstvie tekstu originala. V kontrastivnom analize leksicheskikh sootvetstvij osobuyu trudnost' predstavlyayut mnogoznachnie, shirokoznachnie i kontekstual'no-ambivalentnie edinitsi. Esli pri perevode polisemantov rassmatrivayutsya kak invariantnie (edinichnie), tak i variativnie (mnozhestvennie) leksicheskie sootvetstviya, chto osobenno vazhno dlya snyatiya omonimii, to perevod shirokoznachnikh i kontekstual'no-ambivalentnikh slov v bol'shej stepeni opiraetsya na individual'no-tvorcheskij element v interpretatsii konteksta i na kompetentnost' perevodchika. V razdele tret'em "Strukturnie tipi anglo-russkikh mezh'yazikovikh sootvetstvij i osobennosti recheupotrebleniya" rassmatrivayutsya tipologicheskie kharakteristiki sopostavlyaemikh yazikov (3.1). Materialom kontrastivnogo issledovaniya v nastoyaschem kurse, kak uzhe bilo skazano, yavlyayutsya indoevropejskie yaziki – anglijskij i russkij, otnosyaschiesya k dvum raznim yazikovim sem'yam: slavyanskoj (russkij) i germanskoj (anglijskij). Lingvisticheskaya tipologiya, kak odin iz osnovnikh aspektov v sopostavlenii yazikov, imeet v kachestve svoego predmeta "sravnitel'noe izuchenie strukturnikh i funktsional'nikh svojstv yazikov nezavisimo ot kharaktera geneticheskikh otnoshenij mezhdu nimi" (LES, 1990: 512). Naibol'shij interes dlya kontrastivnogo analiza predstavlyaet tipologicheskaya klassifikatsiya, ustanavlivayuschaya skhodstvo i razlichie mezhdu yazikami v plane ikh yazikovogo stroya. Dannoe napravlenie lingvisticheskogo issledovaniya vozniklo esche v XIX veke i pervonachal'no osnovivalos' na morfologicheskoj klassifikatsii yazikov. Tipologicheskie kharakteristiki yazikovogo stroya korenyatsya v naibolee obschikh svojstvakh yazikov, kotorie pozvolyayut videlit' ikh klassi (tipi), ob'edinyaemie po znachimim priznakam yazikovoj strukturi, naprimer po sposobu soedineniya morfem. Soglasno V.D.Arakinu, "pod tipom otdel'nogo yazika mi ponimaem ustojchivuyu sovokupnost' veduschikh priznakov yazika, nakhodyaschikhsya mezhdu soboj v opredelennikh svyazyakh, prichem nalichie ili otsutstvie kakogo-nibud' odnogo priznaka obuslovlivaet nalichie ili otsutstvie drugogo priznaka ili drugikh priznakov" (Arakin, 1989: 16). Naibolee shiroko izvestnoj yavlyaetsya morfologicheskaya klassifikatsiya yazikov, soglasno kotoroj videlyayutsya chetire osnovnikh klassa: I russkij, i anglijskij yaziki otnosyatsya k flektivnomu tipu, kharakternimi priznakami kotorogo yavlyayutsya polifunktsional'nost' grammaticheskikh morfem, razlichnie tipi sklonenij i spryazhenij, nalichie fuzii i drugie. Odnako konkretnie yaziki mogut zanimat' promezhutochnoe polozhenie v tipologicheskoj klassifikatsii. Tak, anglijskij yazik v khode ego istoricheskogo razvitiya priobrel otdel'nie cherti izoliruyuschikh yazikov, proyavlyayuschiesya v slaboj morfologicheskoj izmenyaemosti leksem i v glavenstvuyuschej roli poryadka slov v virazhenii sintaksicheskikh otnoshenij (Crystal, 1985: 319). Vsled za pervoj tipologicheskoj klassifikatsiej yazikov Fridrikha i Avgusta fon Shlegelej, v 60-kh godakh XIX veka poyavilis' tipologii Karla Vil'gel'ma fon Gumbol'dta i Avgusta Shlejkhera, gde bil videlen esche odin parametr tipologicheskogo sopostavleniya – sintetizm i analitizm. Osnovnoe tipologicheskoe otlichie russkogo yazika ot anglijskogo zaklyuchaetsya v podtipe yazikovogo stroya. Slovo v anglijskom yazike imeet agglyutinativno-analiticheskoe stroenie v otlichie ot fuzionno-flektivnogo – v russkom (Shirokova, 2000: 140). V anglijskom yazike predpochtitel'nim okazivaetsya agglyutinativnij tip svyazi morfem, pri kotorom nablyudaetsya "odnoznachnost' i standartnost' slovoizmenitel'nikh affiksov pri chetkom razgranichenii morfem v slove" (Shirokova, 2000: 139). V russkom zhe yazike, imeyuschem sinteticheskij stroj, "grammaticheskoe znachenie sinteziruetsya v slove... chto pri edinstve slova yavlyaetsya prochnim pokazatelem tselogo" (Ibid: 104). Analitizm anglijskogo yazika proyavlyaetsya v takikh ego svojstvakh, kak ogranichennoe chislo slovoizmenitel'nikh fleksij, fiksirovannij poryadok slov, ispol'zuemij kak sredstvo virazheniya sintaksicheskikh otnoshenij, opredelyayuschaya rol' prosodii i intonatsii v postroenii rechi. Na leksicheskom urovne eta osobennost' virazhaetsya v obrazovanii bol'shogo chisla polileksemnikh edinits, postroennikh po printsipu slovoslozheniya (compounding). Kharakternoj chertoj etikh kompleksov yavlyaetsya to, chto oni funktsional'no neotlichimi ot odnoslozhnikh leksem. Vmeste s tem podobnie edinitsi v raznoj stepeni obladayut priznakami otdel'nikh slov. Po tipu svyazi mezhdu elementami polileksemnie obrazovaniya mogut rassmatrivat'sya kak realizuyuschie agglyutinativnuyu morfologicheskuyu svyaz' (leksicheskie soedineniya) i sintaksicheskuyu svyaz' primikaniya, pri kotoroj zavisimost' odnogo elementa ot drugogo virazhaetsya tol'ko pozitsionno (sintaksicheskie soedineniya). Problema nestojkogo slovoslozheniya v anglijskom yazike proyavlyaetsya v tom, chto granitsi slova i slovosochetaniya okazivayutsya podvizhnimi i u edinits raznikh kategorij priznaki "slova" mogut bit' virazheni v raznoj stepeni (Yakovleva, 1986). V kontrastivnom analize russkogo i anglijskogo yazikov obnaruzhivayutsya sluchai strukturnogo nesovpadeniya, vizvannogo tipologicheskim razlichiem etikh yazikov. Modeli morfologicheskoj svyazi pri slovoobrazovanii viyavlyayut znachitel'noe raskhozhdenie, chto neizbezhno sozdaet problemi pri perevode. K podobnogo roda nesootvetstviyam otnosyatsya slozhnie slova nestojkogo tipa, obrazovannie slozheniem imennikh osnov (Noun + Noun), kotorie ne imeyut strukturnogo ekvivalenta v russkom yazike (3.2). Spetsifiku anglijskogo yazika kak analiticheskogo takzhe otrazhaet yavlenie "upodobleniya slovu", podrazumevayuschee ispol'zovanie pravil'no organizovannikh sintagm v kachestve odnogo slova (Yakovleva, 1986: 7). Dlya russkogo yazika priem upodobleniya slovu, realizuemij na osnove osoboj prosodii i intonatsii, ne yavlyaetsya kharakternim i shiroko upotrebitel'nim (Ibid: 7). Otsutstvie strukturnogo sootvetstviya otmechaetsya i pri analize anglijskikh glagol'nikh sochetanij s predlozhnimi narechiyami (tak nazivaemikh phrasal verbs). Pri sopostavlenii s russkim yazikom frazovij kharakter etikh obrazovanij, viyavlyayuschikh agglyutinativnij tip svyazi mezhdu elementami, chasto ne pozvolyaet ustanovit' sootvetstvie na urovne formi ili obnaruzhit' pryamie strukturnie ekvivalenti sredi russkikh leksem (3.3). Osobaya trudnost' zaklyuchaetsya takzhe v tom, chto narechnij element glagol'nogo sochetaniya v anglijskom yazike mozhet vipolnyat' funktsii raznikh chastej rechi: prosto narechiya v "svobodnom" glagol'no-narechnom obrazovanii, "predlozhnogo narechiya" (prepositional adverb) v sostave "predlozhnogo glagola" (prepositional verb) ili "frazovogo narechiya" (phrasal adverb) vo frazovom glagole (phrasal verb), otlichayuschemsya visokoj stepen'yu idiomatichnosti i metaforichnosti. Kak pravilo, "predlozhnie glagoli" okazivayutsya sopostavimimi s russkimi pristavochnimi glagolami so znacheniem napravleniya dejstviya. Chto zhe kasaetsya sobstvenno frazovikh glagolov, to oni virazhayut global'noe metaforicheskoe znachenie, poetomu ikh sootvetstviya v russkom yazike bolee raznoobrazni po spektru kornevikh morfem. V silu etogo ikh vibor v znachitel'noj stepeni obuslovlen kontekstom. Poskol'ku frazovij glagol blagodarya narechnomu elementu ne tol'ko ukazivaet na napravlenie dejstviya, no i opisivaet drugie ego aspekti (kak, naprimer, nachalo ili okonchanie dejstviya, stepen' ego zavershennosti, povtoryaemost', intensivnost' dejstviya i dr.), on priobretaet mnogoznachnost' i neredko okazivaetsya stilisticheski markirovannim. V sluchae otsutstviya pryamogo ekvivalenta v russkom yazike, v perevode ispol'zuyutsya kontekstual'nie sootvetstviya. Vozmozhen i opisatel'nij sposob peredachi soderzhaniya, virazhaemogo frazovim glagolom, s nekotoroj poterej stilisticheskikh nyuansov... El autor
 Gvishiani Natal'ya Borisovna Doktor filologicheskikh nauk (1985), professor kafedri anglijskogo yazikoznaniya filologicheskogo fakul'teta Moskovskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta imeni M. V. Lomonosova (1989). Avtor mnogochislennikh rabot v oblasti leksikologii i frazeologii anglijskogo yazika, kognitivnikh issledovanij terminologii i korpusnoj lingvistiki. Sredi nikh: "Sovremennij anglijskij yazik: Leksikologiya" (medal' "Laureat VVTs" — 2001), "Yazik nauchnogo obscheniya: Voprosi metodologii" (1986 — pervoe izdanie; pereizd. v URSS pod zaglaviem "Yazik i diskurs nauki"), "Terminologiya v obuchenii anglijskomu yaziku" (1993, premiya imeni G. O. Vinokura Rossijskogo terminologicheskogo obschestva — 1997; pereizd. v URSS), "Praktikum po korpusnoj lingvistike" (2008), "Vvedenie v kontrastivnuyu leksikologiyu" (M.: URSS) i dr. Prezident-osnovatel' Lingvisticheskoj assotsiatsii prepodavatelej anglijskogo yazika pri Moskovskom gosudarstvennom universitete (LATEUM). Zasluzhennij professor MGU imeni M. V. Lomonosova (2010). Laureat Mezhdunarodnoj premii Mezhdunarodnoj federatsii assotsiatsij prepodavatelej sovremennikh yazikov (FIPLV — 2006).
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Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the Moscow Lomonosov State University, Faculty of Philology, Department of English Linguistics. She is the Chair-Founder of the Linguistic Association of Teachers of English at the University of Moscow (LATEUM). She has carried out large-scale academic research in the fields of lexicology and phraseology, terminology, languages for specific purposes and corpus linguistics. Her recently pub-lished books include: «Modern English Lexicology» (2007), «A Tutorial in Corpus Linguistics» (2008), and «The Language of Academic Communication: Issues in Methodology» (URSS, 2008). |
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