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S sozdaniem Leningradskogo otdeleniya Instituta vostokovedeniya (nine Sankt-Peterburgskogo filiala IV RAN) sovpalo rozhdenie unikal'nogo v otechestvennoj sinologii napravleniya – istorii kitajskogo yazika. Opredelil eto napravlenie issledovanij S.E.Yakhontov, v kontse 1950-kh – nachale 1960-kh gg. podgotovivshij cherez aspiranturu dvukh spetsializirovavshikhsya v etoj oblasti nauchnikh sotrudnikov – I.S.Gurevich i I.T.Zograf, – i prodolzhavshij vposledstvii udelyat' vnimanie ikh dal'nejshej rabote. Tem samim bil zapolnen suschestvovavshij v nauke probel, i istoriya kitajskogo yazika zanyala svoe mesto v ryadu drugikh otraslej otechestvennogo lingvisticheskogo kitaevedeniya, takikh kak leksikologiya i leksikografiya (vilivshayasya v sozdanie 4kh-tomnogo kitajsko-russkogo slovarya, vishedshego v svet v 1983–1984 gg.), teoreticheskaya grammatika sovremennogo kitajskogo yazika, tipologiya izoliruyuschikh yazikov, sotsiolingvistika, dialektologiya, razrabotkoj kotorikh zanyati sotrudniki nauchnikh uchrezhdenij Moskvi i Leningradskogo universiteta. Sejchas, kogda vnov' usililos' vnimanie k tipologicheskomu izucheniyu yazikov, eti issledovaniya priobretayut interes dlya obschego yazikoznaniya, poskol'ku tipologiya nuzhdaetsya v konkretnom issledovanii putej strukturnogo razvitiya yazikov raznogo stroya. Dannie na etot schet, poluchaemie na posledovatel'no zafiksirovannom pis'mennom materiale kitajskogo yazika, pozvolyayut stroit' gipotezi otnositel'no techeniya analogichnikh protsessov v tipologicheski skhodnikh bespis'mennikh yazikakh. Metodika issledovaniya i opisaniya, razrabotannaya na kitajskom materiale, okazivaetsya poleznoj pri izuchenii drugikh izoliruyuschikh yazikov. Chto kasaetsya kitajskogo yazika, to postroeniyu obschej kartini istoricheskogo razvitiya yazika uzhe predposlano tschatel'noe opisanie posledovatel'nikh ego sostoyanij. K nastoyaschemu vremeni vipolneni opisaniya yazika trekh vazhnikh periodov: III–V vv. – po perevodam na kitajskij yazik proizvedenij buddijskoj literaturi, IX–X vv. – po dun'khuanskim byan'venyam i tanskim buddijskim yujlu, XII–XV vv. – po sunskim khuabenyam, romanu "Shuj khu chzhuan'" i yuan'skim tszatszyuj. Eti opisaniya pozvolyayut putem sravneniya posledovatel'no smenyavshikhsya sostoyanij yazika sostavit' predstavlenie ob osnovnikh protsessakh, kharakterizovavshikh ego razvitie, ustanovit' vzaimosvyaz' mezhdu yavleniyami, kazavshimisya na pervij vzglyad izolirovannimi, dat' mnogim iz nikh istoricheskoe ob'yasnenie, interesnie rezul'tati daet i statisticheskaya otsenka sravnitel'noj rasprostranennosti grammaticheskikh form i konstruktsij, pokazivayuschaya dinamiku izmeneniya ikh upotrebitel'nosti ot perioda k periodu. Pri issledovanii kitajskogo yazika periodov Lyuchao, Tan i Sun osnovnoe vnimanie udelyalos' viyavleniyu tekstov, naibolee blizkikh k razgovornomu yaziku sootvetstvuyuschikh epokh, i vsestoronnej lingvisticheskoj interpretatsii etikh tekstov, poskol'ku zadacha issledovaniya formulirovalas' kak izuchenie khoda formirovaniya novogo literaturnogo yazika bajkhua, opirayuschegosya na razgovornuyu normu. Poetomu krome osnovnogo istochnika, na kotorom stroitsya opisanie, privlekaetsya ryad dopolnitel'nikh, blizkikh khronologicheski k osnovnomu, no otlichayuschikhsya po zhanru, chto davalo vozmozhnost' prosledit', yavlyayutsya li grammaticheskie yavleniya, zafiksirovannie v osnovnom istochnike, kharakternimi dlya pamyatnikov etogo perioda v tselom, ili oni sostavlyayut spetsifiku kakogo-libo zhanra literaturi. Bez takoj predvaritel'noj raboti nevozmozhna i obschaya periodizatsiya istorii kitajskogo yazika, problemi kotoroj esche daleki ot okonchatel'nogo resheniya. Nekotorie izmeneniya v suschestvuyuschuyu periodizatsiyu mozhno vnesti uzhe sejchas. Tak, polucheni dostatochnie osnovaniya dlya togo, chtobi videlit' v kachestve obosoblennogo perioda yazik epokhi Lyuchao (tochnee, III–V vv. n.e.), chego v spetsial'noj literature do sikh por ne delalos'. Po-novomu opredelyaetsya i khronologicheskie ramki srednekitajskogo yazika. Osnovivayas' na grammaticheskikh kriteriyakh, prinimaetsya v kachestve srednekitajskogo yazika v sobstvennom smisle yazik epokh Sun (tochnee, Yuzhnaya Sun) i Yuan', t.e. XII–XIV vv. Issledovanie srednekitajskogo yazika otkrivaet opredelennie vozmozhnosti i v oblasti izucheniya istoricheskoj dialektologii. V period Sun i Yuan' proizvedeniya khudozhestvennoj literaturi na bajkhua obnaruzhivayut lokal'nie raskhozhdeniya v sisteme grammaticheskikh priznakov. Severnaya i yuzhnaya gruppi pamyatnikov predstavlyayut dva parallel'no razvivavshikhsya dialekta. Provedennoe sravnenie pokazivaet, chto raskhozhdeniya v ikh grammatike prezhde vsego i naibolee ser'ezno proyavlyaetsya v oblasti mestoimenij i modal'nikh chastits. Vmeste s tem, izuchenie istorii yazika imeet nemalovazhnoe znachenie dlya issledovaniya istorii kitajskoj kul'turi. Nastoyaschee uglublenie v istoriyu kul'turi nemislimo bez tschatel'nogo izucheniya original'nikh pis'mennikh pamyatnikov proshlikh epokh, no tochnoe ikh prochtenie i adekvatnaya interpretatsiya nevozmozhni bez nadlezhaschego znaniya istorii yazika, uchitivayuschego tonchajshie grammaticheskie i leksiko-semanticheskie izmeneniya ot epokhi k epokhe i ot zhanra k zhanru. Inache neizbezhno poyavlenie "anakhronichnikh" tolkovanij teksta v rezul'tate modernizirovannogo ili, naprotiv, arkhaizirovannogo vospriyatiya otdel'nikh yazikovikh yavlenij. Nel'zya zabivat' i o takoj, khotya i ne stoyaschej v programme blizhajshikh nashikh issledovanij, no ves'ma vazhnoj probleme, kak "yazik i kul'tura". Suschestvovanie nekotoroj svyazi mezhdu yazikom i kul'turoj izdavna oschuschalos' issledovatelyami, khotya do sikh por ne udalos' dostatochno chetko viyavit' ee prichini i zakonomernosti. Pryamolinejnoj prichinnoj zavisimosti zdes', po-vidimomu, ne nablyudaetsya. Tem ne menee, fakti strukturi yazika i yavleniya kul'turi tak ili inache vzaimosvyazani, i izmeneniya v kul'ture obschestva nakhodyat kakoe-to oposredovannoe otrazhenie v yazike. V perspektive dal'nejshej raboti po istorii kul'turi, predpolagayuschej na kakom-to iz visshikh urovnej obobscheniya videlenie i opisanie "normativnikh" sistem v kul'turakh razlichnogo tipa, bilo bi v visshej stepeni polezno imet' v kachestve sopostavitel'nogo materiala strukturnie modeli vazhnejshikh pis'mennikh yazikov na osnovnikh etapakh ikh istorii. Poetomu pri izuchenii yazika s ieroglificheskoj pis'mennost'yu predshestvuyuschikh epokh osobogo vnimaniya zasluzhivayut grammaticheskie elementi, sokhranyayuschiesya i v sovremennom yazike. Ochen' chasto takie grammaticheskie elementi v tekstakh predshestvuyuschikh epokh i v sovremennom yazike razlichayutsya libo znacheniem, libo ob'emom grammaticheskikh funktsij. Neredko tot ili inoj grammaticheskij element esche ne imeet vsekh tekh funktsij, kotorie prisuschi emu v sovremennom yazike, libo, naoborot, emu svojstvenni dobavochnie, ne sokhranivshiesya v sovremennom yazike, funktsii. Poetomu podkhod k starim tekstam s pozitsij sovremennogo sostoyaniya yazika neizbezhno privodit k vul'garizatsii soderzhaniya takikh grammaticheskikh form. I.T.Zograph. Methods of Historical Study of an Isolating Language with Hieroglyphic System of Writing Languages like Chinese are known to be practically devoid of morphology in the traditional sense of the word. They instead mostly rely on word order and auxiliary/function words to mark syntactic relations within the sentence. In such languages function words play a part comparable to that of inflection in flexional languages. Therefore, in dealing with any historical description of the Chinese language, special emphasis should be laid on the study of semantic and formal properties of each function word within the framework of the grammatical system of the language. Function words, also known as empty words, include, in fact, not only purely auxiliary elements (conjunctions, modal particles and the like), but also "semi-auxiliary" ones (copula words, pronouns and other substitutive words). It is function words that tend to undergo most noticeable alterations in the course of time and generally account for linguistic similarities or discrepancies between individual literary monuments. The inventory of function words had markedly changed by the time Old Chinese gave way to Middle Chinese: considerable variations on the function-word list have equally accompanied the transition from Middle Chinese to the current language. In these changes the following phenomena can be observed: 1) a function word is supplanted by another with very close grammatical idea; 2) the "material" (surface) shape of a word is preserved, with the function changing fully or partly. By picking out the "active" inventory of function words, ascertaining their actual roles and thus fixing the peculiarities of syntax we can provide ourselves with a basis for characterizing any variant of Chinese on any stage of its development, in spite of the fact that each variant sets its own specific requirements. One example can be found in studying the forming of Baihua as a literary language based on a vernacular, in which case the following two points become of primary importance: firstly, texts chosen for the study must be as close in their style to colloquial speech of any of the periods under consideration as possible (at the same time bearing in mind the parallel existence of Wenyan with its influence on Baihua), and secondly, the texts representing each period should be classified according to certain literary genres (in Middle Chinese, the features of a literary monument language have been to an extent determined by its genre). The Yuan epoch, moreover, poses a problem of language interference due to the interaction between Chinese and Mongolian. Analyzing Wenyan, the literary language derived from the norms of Ancient Chinese, provides yet another situation, because much of attention is in this case focused on the shifts appearing in different historical periods in grammatical value of both Ancient Chinese function words and Ancient Chinese syntactic structures. The monography is mainly of methodological character and the seemingly separate sections of the book are a kind of illustrations given to the problems discussed, supplied with a thorough development of the main ideas which are briefly mentioned in the Introduction. The factual material for the monography has been drawn both from the author's previous works (with a very low circulation) and from entirely new data published for the first time. The sections of the book are: Language in Dynamics; Baihua and Dung Huang Texts; Baihua and Confucian Yui-lu of the Sung Dynasty; Local Differences in the Language of the Monuments of Medieval Chinese Literature; Wenyan and its Interaction with Baihua; Genre Peculiarities in the Language of Medieval Chinese Texts; The Yuan Epoch – the Linguistic Situation in China; Interlevel Linguistic Relations and Linguistic Interference; Conclusion – Medieval Baihua and Modern Chinese. Irina Tigranovna ZOGRAF Doktor filologicheskikh nauk, veduschij nauchnij sotrudnik Instituta vostochnikh rukopisej RAN. Spetsialist po srednevekovomu kitajskomu yaziku "bajkhua" epokh Sun, Yuan' i nachala Min (X–XV vv.), a takzhe po srednevekovomu i sovremennomu yaziku "ven'yan'"; izuchaet vzaimodejstvie ven'yanya i bajkhua i sootnoshenie sovremennogo ven'yanya s drevnekitajskim, ot kotorogo ven'yan' vedet svoe nachalo. Avtor okolo 100 nauchnikh rabot, v tom chisle 17 monografij, sredi kotorikh "Mongol'sko-kitajskaya interferentsiya: Yazik mongol'skoj kantselyarii v Kitae" (M., 1984). |
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